View sample cancer research paper on leukemia. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for blogger.comted Reading Time: 10 mins Leukemia Research Reports (LRR), a companion title to Leukemia Research, is a peer-reviewed publication devoted to the rapid publication of short, high-quality papers related to a broad scope of therapeutic areas of hematology, including hematologic malignancies and other non-malignant diseases, . View full aims & scope Research Paper on Leukaemia. Type of paper: Research Papers Subject: Medicine Words: Bonuses and discounts give up to. 20% OFF! Write my paper now! Leukaemia in medical terms is a cancer of blood marrow, caused by the abnormal increase in blood cells in a particular organism. In fact, leukaemia has various forms and is a group of diseases that are comprised in the group of
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This sample Leukemia Research Paper is published for educational and informational purposes only. If you need help writing your assignment, please use our research paper writing service and buy a paper on any topic at affordable price. Also check our tips on how to write a research papersee the lists of health research paper topicsand browse research paper examples. The term cancer has been in use for over years; however, it was not until the nineteenth century that the first cases of leukemia were reported.
The first breakthrough came in the s with the development of the primitive compound microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who went on to identify human red blood cells; this was followed by descriptions of white cells and lymphocytes in the late eighteenth century. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, there were reports of patients with irregularities of the blood, but it was almost years after the identification of leukemia research papers blood cells that leukemia was first reported as a distinct clinical entity Bennett, ; Virchow, Two terms were used to describe this new disease: Virchow introduced leukhemia white blood while Bennett preferred leucocythaemia or white cell blood, leukemia research papers.
However, although their research demonstrated that white cells have different types of nuclei, neither could explain how or why these diseases arose.
InVirchow observed that more than one type of the disease existed; these were described as splenic and lymphatic, the former associated with splenomegaly and the latter with large lymph nodes and cells in the blood that resembled those in the lymph nodes Virchow, He also proposed his cellular theory of the origin of leukemia, which has been fundamental to present-day leukemia research papers of the condition.
With respect to childhood leukemia, it appears that the first recorded case was in ; interestingly, it was not the acute form that is most commonly seen today, but chronic myeloid leukemia.
The acute form leukemia research papers the disease was not described until Controversy surrounded the claims that leukemia was a separate disease entity but as the number of case reports increased along with pathological and clinical details, it gradually became accepted in its own right as a distinct disease.
Concurrently, speculation about the determinants of this cancer also began to increase. More breakthroughs occurred in when bone marrow was discovered to be the source of blood formation and changes in the bone marrow were identified in cases of leukemia.
Alongside these discoveries, it was observed that non-nucleated red blood cells formed from nucleated red blood cells in the leukemia research papers marrow, and that the bone marrow also produced white blood cells. Neumann in went on to classify leukemia as a disease of the bone marrow and added the myelogenous subtype of leukemia to the splenic and lymphatic types already described.
Unfortunately, it took almost 20 years for these theories to be accepted. Improvements in microscopy and the development of methods to differentiate between cell types allowed the classification of leukemia to be simplified into myeloid arising from granulocytes in the bone marrow and lymphoid arising from lymphocytes, nongranular cells.
Ehrlich, who was instrumental in developing this classification, also identified a primitive cell that he described as an ancestral cell in the hematopoietic system, from which other cells in the distinct cell lineages were derived; this may also have been the earliest report of a stem cell Ehrlich, InNaegeli described a new cell type, the myeloblast, which was shown to be an ancestor of the granulocyte.
The lymphoblast was also shown to be the cell in the lymphoid line that produced lymphocytes, thus confirming that the cell lineages were distinct, leukemia research papers. It was from this point onward that the presence of primitive myeloblasts and lymphoblasts in the circulating blood formed a classic diagnosis of acute leukemia.
Several years later, monocytic leukemia was described; and by it was possible to classify leukemia as chronic lymphocytic, chronic myelogenous, acute lymphocytic, myeloblastic, monocytic, leukemia research papers, or as erythroleukemia.
Significant advances in laboratory techniques over the last years have underpinned progress in the classification of leukemia, which in turn has enabled the development of improved treatments. Thus inleukemia research papers, it was shown for the first time that it was possible to obtain temporary remission in patients with acute leukemia following treatment with folate antagonists.
Inacute lymphoblastic leukemia was the first systemic malignancy to be cured by chemotherapy. However, despite advances in classifying leukemia subtypes, all acute leukemias in children were grouped together until the late s.
It was only the observation that acute myeloid and acute lymphoid leukemias responded differently to treatment that enforced the use of the new technologies to distinguish between them. However, while much insight has been gained into classification, diagnosis, and treatment of leukemia, unfortunately the same cannot be said about our understanding of the causes.
Leukemias are a heterogeneous group of disorders arising from the unregulated proliferation of a clone of immature hematopoietic cells that have been trapped at an early stage of differentiation and are unable to differentiate into mature functional blood cells.
The ensuing clones accumulate in the bone marrow and spill over into the peripheral blood, examination of which enables the cell of origin leukemia research papers be determined. The different subtypes of leukemia are classified according to this presumed cell of origin, along with the clinical behavior, such that patients with acute disease, where the clone of leukemic cells is highly malignant, tend to have a poorer prognosis than those diagnosed with a chronic form, where the clone is of low malignancy, leukemia research papers.
However, clinical outcome is not only dependent on the nature of the leukemic clone, but also on how far the disease has progressed by the time the symptoms are recognized, the diagnosis made, and the treatment implemented. If there is a delay in diagnosis it is more likely that the clone will have progressed to the point where additional mutations will have been accrued, including those that confer drug resistance, making treatment more difficult.
The maturity of the main leukemia cell type seen in the bone marrow and blood is also considered; immature blast-like cells predominate in acute leukemia, whereas more mature cells are seen in chronic leukemia. The acute leukemias are divided into myeloid or leukemia research papers based on the lineage of the blast cells. Classification of acute leukemia has traditionally been based upon the appearance morphology of leukemic cells in a bone marrow aspirate, leukemia research papers.
The French-American-British cooperative group described different variants of acute lymphoblastic leukemia ALL and acute myeloid leukemia AML based on the morphology and immunophenotypes of the malignant cells, which became known as the FAB subtypes L1—L3 and M0—M7 Table 1 Bennett leukemia research papers al.
These two subtypes, leukemia research papers, along with chronic myeloid granulocytic leukemia CML and chronic lymphocytic leukemia CLL account for the majority of clinical diagnoses of leukemia. Other rarer forms include hairy cell leukemia and prolymphocytic leukemia. Historically, histological examination has been used for the diagnosis and classification of leukemia subtypes. However, molecular biology techniques have become an integral part of the diagnostic process.
These include the use of monoclonal antibodies against various cellular antigens and cytochemical, immunophenotypic, and cytogenetic tests to further characterize the leukemic cells, to determine T and B cell monoclonality, and to detect chromosomal abnormalities. Immunophenotyping, carried out by leukemia research papers cytometry or immunohistochemistry, is pivotal in distinguishing between Leukemia research papers and ALL and between T cell and B cell subtypes of ALL.
Some subtypes have such characteristic immunophenotypic features that diagnoses can often be suggested or excluded based purely on these results. Cytogenetic analysis is doubly beneficial and it provides information about chromosomal abnormalities that not only correlate with particular subtypes of ALL but also with prognosis, leukemia research papers. Recent advances include the increasing popularity of gene expression microarrays for both diagnostic and prognostic purposes.
Unraveling the causes of leukemia is complex. However, descriptive epidemiological studies of disease incidence, prevalence, mortality, and survival in well-defined populations and subgroups can be of tremendous benefit. The frequency incidence of leukemia and of its specific subtypes, typically expressed as the number of new cases per population per year, is generally obtained from population-based cancer registries, with the total population at risk obtained from national or local census data.
Incidence estimates for total leukemia vary around tenfold between countries, ranging from 1. The highest rates of leukemia in men are seen in Australia, New Zealand, leukemia research papers, North America, and Western Europe and the lowest in Western and Middle Africa.
For women, leukemia rates are also highest in Australia, New Zealand, and North America, in addition to Polynesia, and are lowest in Western Africa, South-Central Asia, and Melanesia. In the UK, the estimated incidence is high compared with other parts of the world, in particular for men The incidence in women is lower 9. The overall incidence of leukemia and its specific subtypes varies with age.
For acute leukemia, the peak incidence in children is between the ages of 2 and 5 years and then a steady decline until the age of 20—24 years, leukemia research papers. There is a slow increase from ages 30—34 to ages 50—54, followed by a rapid increase with age such that the highest incidence is seen in those over 85 years of age.
However, the incidence of both types of chronic leukemia increases with age. It has an annual incidence of two to three cases per per year and a male-to-female ratio of CML is less frequent 1 per There is geographic variation in incidence of the leukemia subtypes; for example while CLL is the most common form of leukemia in the Western world, its incidence in Japan, South America, and Africa is much lower.
AML in children is seen more frequently in Asia and among black populations of North America than in Caucasians. Mortality rates for leukemia are slightly higher in men 8. During the last decade in the UK, there has been a small decrease in the European age-standardized mortality rate for leukemia in women; by contrast, there has been a small increase in the rate for men. Historically, one of the problems faced when describing patterns of incidence of leukemia and searching for specific risk factors and appropriate treatments has been the heterogeneity of the disease.
Since the underlying biological pathways involved in the initiation and progression are likely to be different for each of the distinct disease subtypes, it is important to classify them as individual disease entities when designing new investigative studies.
In addition, although the frequency of the rarer subtypes has been, and will continue to be, low, it is important that they are included in future studies and that international consortia are established in order to provide sufficient power to detect any risks. The etiology of leukemia has not been fully elucidated. However, like most other malignancies, the pathogenesis of leukemia is likely to be a multistep process influenced by a combination of environmental and genetic factors.
Carcinogens can accumulate over a longer period of time in adults than in children, so the potential duration of exposure is much shorter in children and it is likely that different exposures are associated with childhood and adult disease subtypes.
Exposures acting before birth and early in life have leukemia research papers been thought to be important determinants of the disease in children.
Several potential mechanisms by which exogenous agents, including environmental factors and drugs, could impact on childhood leukemia susceptibility have been identified. Areas of interest to date have involved parental smoking before and during the period of conception of the child, leukemia research papers, parental drug use, exposure to ionizing and nonionizing radiation, folate intake, infant feeding, and most notably the timing and dose of exposure to infectious agents.
However, leukemia research papers, while much progress has been made in the treatment of childhood leukemia, this has not been matched in terms of delineating the underlying causes of the disease Lightfoot and Roman, Several risk factors have been clearly identified for specific leukemia subtypes, however, including ionizing radiation, certain genetic disorders, and exposure to chemotherapeutic drugs, along with other physical and chemical exposures, including benzene, leukemia research papers.
In addition, conditions such as myelodysplastic syndromes, myeloproliferative disorders, pernicious anemia, recovery from aplastic anemia, and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria have all been linked with AML.
Infection with the human T cell leukemia research papers virus type 1 HTLV1 has been associated with risk of adult T cell leukemia. One other important factor in the pathogenesis of leukemia is the role that chromosomal abnormalities play in the development, classification, and outcome of the disease. Most of the original information gathered about chromosomal alterations in cancer has come from studies of leukemia and lymphoma, because it is easier to obtain pure populations of single cell types from peripheral blood or bone marrow samples than from solid tumors such as lung, colon, or breast tumors.
Not all leukemias have evidence of chromosomal abnormalities, leukemia research papers, but several types of chromosomal abnormality are commonly associated with specific leukemia subtypes, such as translocations, deletions and additions, point mutations, and gene amplification.
Acute myeloid leukemia AML is subclassified according to evidence of lineage differentiation, including AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities, AML with multilineage dysplasia, therapy-related AML and AML not otherwise characterized.
The first three all have specific cytogenetic profiles that are important in predicting the leukemic process, especially with respect to response to therapy and survival. The most common abnormalities seen in AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities include the reciprocal translocations t 8;21 qq22 AML-ETOinv 16 p13q22t 16;16 pq22 and various translocations involving the 11q23 breakpoint, leukemia research papers.
Many of these tend to occur in younger patients and are generally associated with a good response to therapy, often a high rate of complete leukemia research papers and a favorable outcome. With respect to 11q23 aberrations, these are frequently seen in two specific clinical subgroups of AML: AML in infants and therapy-related leukemia that can arise after treatment with DNA topoisomerase II inhibitors, leukemia research papers.
In contrast, AML with multilineage dysplasia is more frequently seen leukemia research papers older patients, rarely occurs in children, leukemia research papers, and is associated with a reduced likelihood of achieving complete remission.
It is categorized by an unfavorable cytogenetic profile, often involving additions and deletions of major segments of selected chromosomes including deletions of 5q, 7q, 11q, 12p, and 20q, gain leukemia research papers chromosomes 8, 9, 11, 19, and 21, loss of chromosomes 5, 7, and 18, specific translocations t 2;11t 1;7and trans- locations involving 3q21 and 3q Less is known about the AML not otherwise classified group, which includes acute myeloblastic leukemia minimally differentiated, acute myeloblastic leukemia with and without maturation, acute myelomonocytic leukemia, acute monoblastic and acute monocytic leukemia, and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia.
More detail about the specific types of AML is given in Table 2. ALL is predominantly a disease of children. The immunological subtypes include common, pre-B-ALL, null, and B and Leukemia research papers phenotypes. The segregation by age of these different subtypes may account for the marked prognostic differences between infants, children, and adults Greaves, The cytogenetic abnormalities are generally grouped as leukemia research papers hyperdiploidy over 50 chromosomes per nucleus instead of the normal 46hyperdiploidy 47—50 chromosomeshypodiploidy fewer than 46 chromosomespseudodiploidy 46 chromosomes but with structural or numerical changesand translocations.
All of these leukemia research papers used in designing the treatment of ALL in children. Over genes have been found to be involved in chromosomal translocations in ALL, but many are rare; those most commonly associated with childhood ALL are MLL, TEL, and AML1, all of which can fuse with over 15 other genes and, in the case of TEL and AML1, with each other, leukemia research papers.
However, in adult precursor B-ALL, the cases are generally less well characterized genetically; the poor prognostic abnormality t 9;22 q34;q Conversely, those chromosomal alterations that confer a good prognosis, such as high hyperdiploidy and the t 12;21 translocation, leukemia research papers, are less frequently seen in adults.
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Jul 29, · Leukemia Research Results and Study Updates. See Advances in Leukemia Research for an overview of recent findings and progress, plus ongoing projects supported by NCI. FDA Approves Belumosudil to Treat Chronic Graft-Versus-Host Disease. Posted: August 18, FDA has approved belumosudil (Rezurock) for the treatment of chronic graft-versus Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Research Papers There are many different types of cancers that exist, but the one that will be the focus of this paper will be Leukemia. Leukemia is a type of blood-forming cancer, which occurs when there is an increased of uncontrolled immature or Research Paper on Leukaemia. Type of paper: Research Papers Subject: Medicine Words: Bonuses and discounts give up to. 20% OFF! Write my paper now! Leukaemia in medical terms is a cancer of blood marrow, caused by the abnormal increase in blood cells in a particular organism. In fact, leukaemia has various forms and is a group of diseases that are comprised in the group of
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